low blood glucose:

glucogon released from alpha cells of pancreas

​to raise blood glucose

exercise
contracting muscles take up glucose for energy without needing insulin .
regular physical has been shown to increase insulin sensitivity for 24 hours or more after you finish working out.
why? muscle movement opens GLUT4 channels to pull sugar from your blood directly.
exercise clears out sugar stores in your muscles, making your body eager to absorb more.

what to do?? 

factors influencing blood sugar levels:
meal composition
physical activity
sleep quality
stress
illness
some medications

why be concerned with sugar levels in the blood?

type 2:
​(previously known as adult onset)
 insulin resistance occurs

glucose absorption rates vary due to:
1. the type of carb
2. the amount of fiber you eat
3. if you eat protein or fat with the carbs
4. physical activity levels
5. your metabolism

fiber, protein, and unsaturated fats slow digestion and glucose absorption

eat fiber...vegetables, beans, lentils, and whole grains to slow sugar absorption.

cut processed sugars...sugary drinks, sweets, and refined carbs that cause sharp blood sugar spikes.

pair your foods...combine carbohydrates with healthy fats or lean proteins to flatten your glucose curve.

exercise daily...150 minutes + of moderate activity each week.

lift weights to build muscle through resistance training  to boost glucose uptake.

walk after meals...a 20 minute walk after eating helps to  lower post-meal blood sugar.

sleep...7 to 9 hours of rest each night prevents short-term spikes in resistance.

reduce stress to lower high cortisol levels and reduce inflammation.

lose some weight...just losing 5% to 10% of extra body weight significantly improves metabolic efficiency

diabetes mellitus is a health condition that results in high blood sugar because your body does not make insulin OR use insulin well 

what is diabetes?

glucose and  hemoglobin

                               types of diabetes
1. type 1 is an autoimmune reaction that stops your body from making           insulin. 

2. type 2 occurs when your body cannot use insulin well 

3. gestational diabetes develops during pregnancy in women who                  have never had diabetes and usually goes away after birth

when does this homeostatic mechanism go awry?

so...

or...

hyperglycemia occurs when glucose can't be properly utilized by cells. this occurs with diabetes.

only a relatively small fraction of blood glucose binds to hemoglobin. The majority of circulating glucose remains free and unbound in the blood plasma, serving as an immediate energy source for the body's cells.

the HbA1C test 
measures how much glucose is bound to hemoglobin 

glucose and its isomers are the building blocks for other carbohydrates

blood sugar homeostasis

environment and lifestyle triggers

body weight: excess fat makes cells less responsive to insulin.

exercise: regular physical movement helps your body process glucose and use insulin properly.

epigenetics: lifestyle can modify how your genes behave and affect your blood sugar management. 

Blood glucose levels are constantly changing throughout the day. ​

4. nerve damage may occur.
excess glucose turns into sticky sorbitol inside nerve cells which causes the cells to swell and malfunction.

 hemoglobin's primary job is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the cells/tissues

it starts with insulin...

and glucogon

​high blood sugar = hyperglycemia
glucose levels remain elevated. symptoms include:
Increased thirst
Frequent urination
Fatigue
Blurred vision
Headaches
Difficulty concentrating

1. blood vessel destruction occurs when excess glucose bond with structural proteins in vessel walls, reducing their flexibility to expand and contract with each heartbeat, reducing their diameter,
triggering oxidative stress and chronic inflammation. 

and what i eat??

high blood glucose:

insulin released from beta cells of pancreas 

​to lower blood glucose

​after eating, blood sugar will rise as glucose absorption occurs.
between meals, blood sugar gradually declines as cells use glucose for energy.
your body works continuously to maintain balance. 

as blood glucose levels rise,
the amount of glucose bound to hemoglobin increases. 

different carbohydrates influence how quickly glucose enters your bloodstream. 

hyperglycemia
can lead to long-term problems:

why is glucose so important?

5. increase the chance of heart attack/stroke.
excess glucose stiffens and thickens blood vessels and speeds up atherosclerosis (the accumulation of fatty deposits in arteries).
blocked arteries cant supply the brain with vital oxygen.
 sticky clots block the brain's narrow blood vessels = stroke

why?
downregulation = when constant high levels of insulin in the blood cause cells to reduce the number of active receptors on their surfaces

post-receptor defects = chemical relay signals inside the cell don't activate properly after insulin binds

chronic inflammation = immune signals linked to excess body fat interfere with normal insulin pathway communication

lipotoxicity = lipid molecules build up inside muscle and liver cells which block internal signaling 

Low blood sugar = hypoglycemia
blood glucose levels drop below normal with symptoms such as:
Shakiness
Sweating
Hunger
Dizziness
Rapid heartbeat
Irritability
Confusion

how?
high levels of blood sugar present
 pancreas pumps out high levels of insulin to get more blood sugar into your cells
 cell receptors stop responding well to insulin = resistance
 
blood sugar remains high
  pancreas to keep releasing more insulin
and there's the spiral...

3. the kidneys' ability to filter waste is reduced. excess glucose damages and the tiny capillaries, letting a vital blood protein called albumin leak out into the urine and destroying the nephrons.

then what...
the body keeps trying to remove excess blood sugars
by storing it in the liver and muscles. when they're full, the liver sends the remaining sugar to be stored as body fat, causing weight gain.

hyperglycemia occurs when glucose can't be properly utilized by cells. this occurs with diabetes.

how does insulin work?

type 1:
​(previously known as childhood) autoimmune disorder insufficient insulin produced

 hemoglobin is a protein complex found in your RBCS 

here's the formula for the process of converting food 
to a usable cell energy called ATP.
the process is called 
aerobic cellular respiration...

a formula is just a story about atoms.

Once inside cells, glucose may be:

Used right away for energy
Stored in muscles as glycogen
Stored in the liver as glycogen
Converted to fat for long-term storage

glucose and hemoglobin

2. tiny blood vessels in the retina of the eye become damaged  which can lead to blindness. weakened vessels leak fluid into the retina ​causing blurry vision.

GLUT4 is stored within vacuoles when insulin levels are low

Eating increases blood sugar and causes the pancreas to release insulin

Insulin binds to cell receptors and triggers a signal cascade

​GLUT4 moves to the outer cell membrane, opens a channel, and lets glucose enter the cell

cytotoxic T cells do not recognize self-antigens

on the surface of pancreatic islet cells.
CD4 and CD8 T cells attack and destroy insulin-producing beta cells. B cells make antibodies against
beta cell proteins.

today, we'll start with the basics:
​
1. what is glucose and what is is role in cellular health?
2. why is insulin necessary for cells to acquire glucose from our blood?

blood glucose attaches to hemoglobin
via spontaneous glycation...
glucose molecules bond to amino acids in the hemoglobin protein. 

the test measure what percentage of
your red blood cells contain
glycated hemoglobin (glucose attached). your red blood cells regenerate around every three months so the A1C test can reliably measure your average blood glucose  levels over that time period.

What happens afteucose enters the bloodstream?

As blood glucose levels rise, the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin is a hormone that acts like a key, helping glucose move from the bloodstream into cells where it can be used for energy.

it's normal for glucose to bind to hemoglobin..

 genetic pre-disposition

there are hundreds of common gene variants that work together rather than a single faulty gene causing the condition.

some variants affect how your body responds to insulin and others 
affect how beta cells in the pancreas function and secrete insulin.

having one parent with type 2 diabetes roughly doubles your risk.

glucose =

a simple carbohydrate that
serves as our body's primary source of fuel

is it genetic?

insulin is a hormone

what is glucose absorption?
it's the process by which glucose moves from the digestive tract (small intestine) into the bloodstream. 
blood glucose levels naturally rise after eating as this newly absorbed glucose becomes available for energy.