multiple sclerosis/MS

Research suggests that the
 brains of people with bipolar disorder may differ from the brains of people who do not have this condition. Medical providers
diagnose and treat based on symptoms and history and not
 brain imaging. Research also suggests that bipolar disorder is linked to the presence of specific genes. Individuals who have a parent or sibling with bipolar disorder have an increased chance of having the disorder themselves. 

review question:

scenario...you place your hand on a hot kettle.  Propose the path from stimulus to response. 

1. amygdala

The thalamus relays >95% of  sensory info to the cortex...
all of the vision, taste, touch and balance info (but not sensory info from the nose...the olfactory bulb sends that info directly to the cerebrum)?

bipolar disorder

Clinical depression

Parkinson's disease

  the structures of the limbic system include the:
1. amygdala
2. thalamus
3. cingulate gyrus
4. mammillary bodies/fornix
5. hypothalamus
6. hippocampus

   2. thalamus

review question:

scenario...you feel a chilly breeze on your neck. Propose the path from stimulus to response. 

A stroke occurs when the brain's blood supply is reduced or stopped. this prevents the brain from receiving necessary nutrients/O2 and the brain cells post blockage die. 

types are: hemorrhagic
           ischemic

                 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF):
1. protects the brain and spinal cord from impact and helps prevent injury by acting as a shock absorber and a buffer against sudden head movements. 
2. provides nutrient and waste transport by circulating nutrients to the brain and spinal cord and removing waste products generated by the brain's metabolic processes. 
3. helps maintain homeostasis by regulating electrolyte concentrations and transporting neurotransmitters and hormones.
4. plays a role in immune responses within the central nervous system
5. on can be analyzed to diagnose certain neurological conditions

Alzheimer's disease

Although MS is an autoimmune disease, the cause of multiple sclerosis is unknown. Both genetics and environmental factors are thought to be responsible. there are associated risk factors including:
sex: twice as may women as men are affected
family history of the disease
infections: several viruses including Epstein-Barr, have been related to onset
race: those of Northern European descent are at highest risk 
climate. MS is more common in  areas with temperate climates
vitamin D: low levels of vitamin D/
low exposure to UV
other autoimmune diseases

   receptor > integrator > effector
   (afferent)                         (efferent)
   (sensory)                           (motor)

hippos = ​horse
​campos = sea monster 
​ (in Greek)

3. hypothalamus

    central nervous system (CNS): the brain

the hippocampus is a  embedded deep into temporal lobe and plays a central role in learning and memory.

when a threat  is perceived, either real or aroused  by memories or fear, 
 the amygdala automatically activates the fight-or-flight response. it's activation, triggered by emotions like fear, anxiety or aggression, causes the release of stress hormones that serve to prep yourself to fight or run away. 

central nervous system: ​​the spinal cord

amygdala hijacking!

review question:

what is the role of the autonomic nervous system vs the somatic nervous system?

extra credit:

explain how the hypothalamus serves as a link between the endocrine system and the nervous system.

review question:

what are autonomic ganglia?

anxiety...
​a hyperactive amygdala

 autonomic nervous system:
sympathetic vs parasympathetic

The Nervous System

 sensory information from experiences is processed in different parts of the cortex then transferred to the hippocampus where it's temporarily stored and processed. Long-term potentiation (LTP) cause synapses between neurons to become stronger. the hippocampus doesn't store long-term memories directly but transfers them to the cortex for permanent storage. the transfer process is helped by the hippocampus's connections to other brain regions. Sleep is essential for this transfer process since the hippocampus replays recent events during sleep which helps the brain consolidate memories. 

MS = multiple sclerosis
is an autoimmune disease whereby the immune system degrades myelin. this causes nerve relay problems between the CNS and PNS and a deterioration of nerves.
symptoms of MS vary, depending  on the level of damage and the # of nerves affected. although there isn't a cure for MS, there are therapeutics which can manage symptoms. 

extra credit:

explain how the stress response operates.

reflexes

           the limbic system

bipolar disorder (called also
manic depression) is a condition that exhibits severe high and low mood swings and changes in behavior. it is common f or people with this disorder to feel elated
and energized and then have  periods of feeling hopeless.

review question:

describe the pathway for the nervous system?

the somatic nervous system is a part of the PNS. It's responsible for voluntary, conscious movements and processing sensory information, connecting the CNS with skeletal muscles and sensory receptors. 

    cerebrospinal fluid

    meninges

The thalamus relays motor and sensory info to the cerebral cortex and also regulates alertness/wakefulness and sleep. ​

pathologies

 controls emotional and behavioral responses centered around survival:
reproduction, caring for offspring, feeding and the fight or flight response.
regulates the endocrine and autonomic responses to emotional stimuli.
​ it is also involved with establishing and accessing memories and reinforcing learned behavior.
it links brain's consciousness with the autonomic, unconscious brain stem...

amygdala fear center

review question:

outline the nervous system's divisions and their functions.

    the corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres

    peripheral nerve structure

Alzheimer's disease is caused by
​the build-up of proteins called 
 amyloid plaques in the brain.
Another protein called tau forms tangles within brain cells.

 sensory input > information processing > response

short vs long term
​ stress response

review question:

describe the structure of a PNS nerve.

an autonomic ganglion is a cluster of nerve cell bodies that act as a relay station between the CNS, PNS and target organs, regulating 
involuntary activities such as  heart rate, digestion, and breathing.
 There are two main types:
 sympathetic ganglia and parasympathetic ganglia. 

0.1% of the population in the US has MS. that number increases to 2.5 to 5%  if you have a sibling or parent with MS. there is a genetic link but factors other than genetics are at play. An identical twin has a 25% chance of developing MS if their twin is affected. 

   the hypothalamus links the nervous and the endocrine system via the the   pituitary gland. It releases hormones that direct the pituitary gland to in turn    release hormones. forexample:
1. the hypothalamus secretes                        thyrotrophin releasing hormone              (TRH).
2. this triggers the pituitary gland to          secret thyroid stimulating hormones      (TSH)
3. the thyroid gland has receptors for         TSH which tells the thyroid gland to       release thyroid hormones essential         for metabolic homeostasis.

review question:

what are three functions of CSF?

4. hippocampus

Stroke

    Peripheral Nervous System = PNS

Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects dopaminergic (dopamine producing) neurons.  the cause is unknown. Alpha-synuclein is a protein found in these neurons. In PD,  the protein folds incorrectly and results in clumps called Lewy Bodies. The current hypothesis is that Lewy bodies are toxic to these neurons and may even get passed along from one neuron to the next which causes the spread of the disease. 

    and your brain stem

reflex arc:
a reflex arc consists of a receptor, an integrator and an effector.
sensory cells carry afferent impulses to an interneuron in the spinal cord which sends a response to the
motor neuron. 

 a dorsal root ganglion is a cluster of sensory neuron cell bodies
​(part of the PNS)

neurological disorders include:
multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, stroke, clinical depression, bipolar disorder

 the amygdala is associated with the experiencing of emotions.
It's responsible for processing scary and threatening stimuli.
it's only 0.3% of the volume of the human brain yet is controls many of our emotional responses. 

There is an inherited predisposition to developing depression. depression can also be caused by physical illness, aging and  gender.

the autonomic nervous system is also part of the PNS. It regulates involuntary physiologic processes...
heart rate, blood pressure, respiration etc.

extra credit:

describe the limbic system.

review question:

describe three
​ actions taken by the 
parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and three by the sympathetic division. 

 somatic vs autonomic
      nervous system

 hypothalamus and stress...

​the hypothalamus controls cortisol release by the adrenal gland.

Depression can manifest as temporary episodes of sadness all the way up to persistent depression. major depression or major depressive disorder is also called clinical depression. it's different from being depressed due to an episodic event such as a death in the family. This severe form of depression is diagnosed using the APA's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)